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clude as a result of this analysis is that those who accept the notion of 2. All contaminated phenomena are unsatisfactory, or in the
inherent existence at least on the conventional level of reality are nature of suffering.
forced to also accept that things do come from inherently distinct caus- 3. All things and events are empty, or devoid of self-existence.
es and conditions. 4. Nirvana is true peace.
This is clear from Nagarjuna s writings. In the first chapter of
Fundamentals of the Middle Way, when he rejects the idea of other-pro- It is the third of these that all phenomena are empty, or devoid of self-
duction, he states that for those who posit the notion of inherent exis- existence on which the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras elaborate. In the
tence, much of the conventional use of language describing the rela- Heart Sutra, the Buddha enumerated the five aggregates and said that
tionship between an agent and its activity and things and their proper- each is devoid of self, or inherent, existence. In summarizing this teach-
ties becomes untenable. ing, he states that form is emptiness, emptiness is form. In other
For example, when we say that a sprout comes into being or origi- words, there is no emptiness apart from form and there is no form apart
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nates from its causes, we are saying that the origination of the sprout is, from emptiness.
in a sense, a property or characteristic of the sprout. During the stage of Therefore, when we search for the inherent nature of everything
the seed, however, the sprout is yet to be, but we can still say that that we experience and perceive, including our five aggregates and all
because the seed is in the process of maturation, the seed is producing phenomena relevant to our personal experiences of suffering and happi-
the sprout or the sprout is originating. At this point, the activity of orig- ness, we will be unable to find it. The inherent nature of form or any
152 ILLUMINATING THE PATH TO ENLIGHTENMENT THE PERFECTION OF WISDOM 153
other phenomenon cannot be found. This is why Buddha stated that cause us happiness, so they must exist in some way. At the same time,
form is emptiness. However, this does not mean that all phenomena are however, these things and events do not possess the inherent, independ-
non-existent. It simply means that all phenomena are devoid of inher- ent existence that we tend to project onto them.
ent existence. The existence of phenomena can be understood only in This suggests, as Nagarjuna points out in his Precious Garland, that
terms of their dependent nature. Therefore, Buddha stated that empti- self or person is the aggregation of the six elements of earth, water, fire,
ness is form. wind, space and consciousness. Similarly, the way in which all phenom-
There is a very close relationship between form and its emptiness, ena exist can be understood only in terms of the aggregation of various
because they are two aspects of one and the same phenomenon. factors; they lack any identity that is independent of other factors. As
According to the teaching on the two truths, each and every phenome- Buddhapalita stated in his commentary on Nagarjuna s Fundamentals, if
non possesses two natures, one at the conventional level of reality and things and events have an inherent intrinsic identity, we should be able
one at the ultimate level. The conventional truth is the reality that can to point at something and say, That s it. But such is not the case.
be accepted at the relative level; emptiness is the ultimate truth of all When we use terms, labels and concepts, we have to apply them on the
things and events. We must understand that the two truths are not inde- basis of the aggregation of many factors. This in itself suggests that
pendent of one another but are two different perspectives, or two things and events do not possess inherent or independent reality.
natures, of the one phenomenon. Therefore, when you approach emptiness from the perspective of the
When we proceed with our analysis, one thing that helps us dependent origination of things, the fact that things are devoid of inher-
understand emptiness is the law of contradictions. In the world, we ent existence is brought into much sharper relief.
find factors that naturally contradict and oppose one other. When you study the various presentations of the Buddha s teachings
Fu rt h e r m o re, there are certain phenomena that not only contradict on no-self, including the premises upon which the Buddhist masters
one another but are also mutually exc l u s i ve dependence and inde- interpret them and the reasoning they use to establish their particular
pendence, for example. Something is either dependent or independ- understanding, you will gradually come to appreciate the uniqueness of
ent; there is no third possibility. Nagarjuna brings this into focus in the teachings of the Madhyamaka Prasangika School. Masters such as
his Refutation of Objections (Vi g ra h a v y a va rt a n i ), where he states that Buddhapalita and Chandrakirti interpreted Nagarjuna s teachings on
if the absence of inherent existence is re versed, existence of inhere n t emptiness in a unique and excellent way. When you subject their inter-
existence is automatically established. Things and events are either pretations to critical analysis, you find that their particular reading of
i n h e rently existent or empty of inherent existence. Nagarjuna s teachings on emptiness is the one that is the most compat-
When you think like this, you will realize that when you subject all ible with valid reasoning and personal experience. If you base your study
phenomena to reductive analysis and search for their true essence, you of emptiness on the writings of these great, authentic teachers, you will
will arrive at a point where you cannot find a solid, concrete reality. greatly deepen your appreciation of the incredible depth and clarity of
However, our own personal experience affirms the reality of things, their teachings.
because we experience their effects. Some things cause us pain, others
154 ILLUMINATING THE PATH TO ENLIGHTENMENT THE PERFECTION OF WISDOM 155
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